To properly understand a concept, we first turn to the dictionaries, to see how that word is defined in our language, objectively, and the multiple subjective meanings it holds in our society. So far, we haven’t found a dictionary that includes a citation for “Deaf culture,” but all dictionaries have listings for “culture,” so we’re including two of them. A definition of Deaf culture is quoted from our book, For Hearing People Only: Third Edition.
Dictionary definitions of culture
From The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (online version):
Cul·ture (kul'cher) n.
a. The totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought. b. These patterns, traits, and products considered as the expression of a particular period, class, community, or population: Edwardian culture; Japanese culture; the culture of poverty. c. These patterns, traits, and products considered with respect to a particular category, such as a field, subject, or mode of expression: religious culture in the Middle Ages; musical culture; oral culture. d. The predominating attitudes and behavior that characterize the functioning of a group or organization.
Intellectual and artistic activity and the works produced by it.
a. Development of the intellect through training or education. b. Enlightenment resulting from such training or education.
A high degree of taste and refinement formed by aesthetic and intellectual training.
Special training and development: voice culture for singers and actors.
The cultivation of soil; tillage.
The breeding of animals or growing of plants, especially to produce improved stock.
Biology a. The growing of microorganisms, tissue cells, or other living matter in a specially prepared nutrient medium. b. Such a growth or colony, as of bacteria. tr.v. cul·tured, cul·tur·ing, cul·tures
To cultivate.
a. To grow (microorganisms or other living matter) in a specially prepared nutrient medium. b. To use (a substance) as a medium for culture: culture milk.
[Middle English, cultivation, from Old French, from Latin cultura, from cultus, past participle of colere; see cultivate.]
From Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition:
cul•ture \ 'kul-cher\ n [ME, fr. MF, fr. L cultura, fr. cultus, pp.](15c)
CULTIVATION, TILLAGE
The act of developing the intellectual and moral faculties esp. by education
expert care and training (beauty ~)
a: enlightenment and excellence of taste acquired by intellectual and aesthetic training b: acquaintance with and taste in fine arts, humanities, and broad aspects of science as distinguished from vocational and technical skills
a: the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon man’s capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations b: the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group c: the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes a company or corporation
cultivation of living material in prepared nutrient media; also: a product of such cultivation
Note that “culture” has several definitions, and encompasses special training, socially transmitted codes and patterns of conduct, intellectual develpment, enlightenment, knowledge, beliefs, and sophistication. Particularly relevant to a discussion of Deaf culture are the characteristics of “predominating attitudes and behavior that characterize the functioning of a group or organization” and “beliefs. social forms . . . the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices.”
An insider’s definition
So much for the dictionary definitions. Now, here’s our definition of Deaf culture:
From For Hearing People Only: Third Edition, Chapter 55:
One possible definition of U.S. Deaf culture (and there must be many!) is a social, communal, and creative force of, by, and for Deaf people based on American Sign Language (ASL). It encompasses communication, social protocol, art, entertainment, recreation (e.g., sports, travel, and Deaf clubs), and worship. It’s also an attitude, and, as such, can be a weapon of prejudice—“You’re not one of us; you don’t belong.”
Despite the mighty efforts of generations of oralists, deaf people still prefer to communicate and mingle with their own kind. That is the psychosocial basis of Deaf culture.
Deaf people in the United States have staunchly resisted the unstinting attempts of oralists to eradicate the use of sign language and assimilate them into the hearing mainstream.
The simple fact is that deaf people who attend the common residential schools for the deaf—no matter what mode of communication is forced on them in the classroom—tend to seek out other deaf people and communicate in sign language. This is true, to some extent, in other countries, but the U.S. arguably has the most sophisticated and creative—and public—Deaf culture of any.
Note that “Deaf culture” is a positive term, indicative of pride and a communal identity,
whereas terms like “hearing-impaired” and “deafness” do not connote any particular pride or sense of community. There are oralists (deaf as well as hearing) who deny that there is such a thing as Deaf culture. They prefer to see it as an artificial political construct formulated in recent times, more of a self-conscious, posturing attitude than a reality. This view denies the importance of ASL to Deaf people.
Each ethnic and religious group has its own culture. In the case of U.S. mainstream Protestants, the characteristics may not be sharply defined. Recent Hindu or Hmong emigrants, for example, will likely have a well-defined, all-encompassing culture—a distinct mode of dress, a distinct cuisine.
Deaf people who claim a culturally “Deaf” identity compare themselves to members of other ethnic communities. “We have a language; we have a culture,” they say. Opponents of this view don’t see deaf people as members of an ethnic minority but simply as handicapped persons, people with a hearing loss, people with a hearing disability, audiological patients.
The Internal Debate on Deaf Culture:
“Deaf culture”vs “Deaf community”
The term “culture” is appropriate, since it’s too strong a term, too restrictive, and too politically-slanted. Since deaf people come from a wide variety of backgrounds, communicatively, educationally, and socially, some prefer a term that reflects this diversity.
Deaf people in the United States are already members of American culture. Certainly, it’s possible to hold membership in more than one culture,but if you consider carefully, you’ll see that deaf people don’t really have a distinct, full-fledged culture.
There is no “Deaf God,” for example, although there are a number of ASL-affirmative churches. But these churches are simply outposts of existing denominations, such as Lutheran, Methodist, Roman Catholic, or Reform Judaism.
There is no distinct “Deaf religion,” no “Deaf Bible,” no “Deaf food,” no “Deaf dress.” Deaf people are not recognizable as “deaf” at first glance.
could be a SUB-CULTURE?
ASLis the linguistic basis of our ethnic identity, but aside from that, we don’t have a distinct culture like Sikhs or Italian-Americans do, so the term “subculture” might be more appropriate.
“Deaf culture,” as a self-conscious political concept, is limiting rather than inclusive. It encourages a certain elitism, a snobbery.
For example, in Deaf culture, a person is considered “strong-Deaf,” and is accorded respect, if s/he has Deaf parents. If one is the child of hearing parents,they are not considered “strong-Deaf” enough by certain Deaf-culture purists. In this view, lower than that of persons with Deaf parents and/or Deaf siblings. Some believe that they don’t consider people part of Deaf culture because they are from a hearing family and didn’t attend Gallaudet University.
The term “community” indicates a group of people, or a segment of the population, that has shared goals, beliefs, experiences, or simply lives in proximity. Although most deaf people are geographically scattered, they do comprise a distinct community with ASL and the schools for the deaf as their socio-linguistic heart. Thus, “Deaf community” includes people from mainstreamed backgrounds, alumni of oral schools, persons with cochlear implants, and those whose first language in English—all of these disqualifying factors to membership in Deaf culture. The Deaf community also includes hearing families, friends, supporters, and advocates of Deaf people—even if they’re not native-ASL signers.
Another opinion is that “Deaf culture” and deaf community” are not really conflicting. While there is a Deaf culture there is also a deaf community.The deaf “community” is more informal and local. When I go to Deaf club, it’s more of a community. But it doesn’t deny that there is a Deaf culture.
Also, many who don’t see the validity of being deaf also deny that there is a Deaf culture. The opponents of deafness being opposed to Deaf culture is like anyone else who wants to deny a lifestyle. They deny the culture and use that as a means of denying that the lifestyle is valid. And then say that because there is no lifestyle there can be no culture. How can this be? Do they think we are as simple as they are?
A state of “markedness” in which there is a bodily SIGN designed to expose something unusual or bad about the moral status of an individual. TODAY the emphasis is on the DISGRACE rather than the physical signed of it.
--“scarlet letter”
--“gang tattoo”
--Slave branding
--Leprocy & other moral diseases
--Malformation & other disability
--subtle marks:
·How have each of you experienced STIGMA in your lives (we all have a story).
·How does our experience with stigmatization affect our experiences, choices and behaviors?
·What kinds of things are stigmatized by society & culture today?
·Can stigmas be manipulated?
SIGNIFIER ===SIGN (signified)
“Actual social identity” VS “Virtual social identity”
Discrepancy between the actual social identity of a person and the virtual social identity (all the traits we expect to associate with an individual based on first impressions) These discrepancies QUESTION THEIR IDENTITY in our minds. When these discrepancies create a negative evaluation of a person’s social identity. We call it a stigma.
·Not all discrepancies are stigmas
·Stigmas are attributes that deeply discrediting (social judgment)
·Evaluation can not be removed from its social context
·Can be apparent (discredited) or hidden (discreditable)
In each case the individual has a mark which identifies them as discredited (other than expected) and interferes with normal social intercourse
Those without a mark we call NORMALS
Normals see those with stigmas at “not quite human”, and therefore we treat them with some sort discrimination which affects (reduces) their life chances.
1.“stigma theory” an ideology constructed to explain the inferiority of the stigmatized person and explain the dangerous (LIMINAL (VanGennup), Contaminating (Douglas)) nature of stigmatized people.
2.Stigma terminology is constructed as a shorthand to connect with these socially constructed and maintained beliefs (without having to really define what they mean)
oMoron, retard, bastard, faggot, cripple
3.Stigma Halo emanates from the category and we attribute a plethora of negative attributes to the original demarcation, including some “supernatural” or sixth sense on occasion (also imputes dangerous/nonhuman nature).
4.Shared Vision though there are exceptions, in the USA,
oShame: stigmatized individuals tend to share the evaluation that normals have of them. This leads to a sense of “self alienation” and “disempowerment” that often prevents social change. It is not just the hegemony that keeps stigma alive; it is a SHARED SOCIAL UNDERSTANDING.
oThis is strengthened by the fact that we have DEFINED STIGMA, and therefore have a set of clear expectations for their behavior, and a mandate for it to be realized. NORMALS have a greater set of options for behavior and decreased expectations for meeting these characteristics since the ABSENCE OF STIGMA defines them in large part.
oEXCEPTIONS: often need to separate themselves from hegemonic society & create their own norms: Orthodox Jews, Gypsies, Mennonites, etc.
oGoal: erase shame and achieve Acceptance.
Paths to Acceptance:
1. Correct cause of stigma (erase blemish)
·plastic surgery
·conversion through therapy to heterosexuality
·born again
2.Strive to Overcome Deficit
·Bind person learns to ski
·Wheelchair athlete 3. Deny the stigmatized evaluation by society
Normal & Stigmatized Interactions
These are often difficult and rife with discomfort from both sides
Sympathetic Others
·Those who share the stigma
o Create a support community
oshare a differently constructed value system
ofeel at-ease with this knowledge
odisadvantage used as a basis for organizing their lives with others of similar disadvantage (shared common experience)
oMay REJECT the stigmatized group and ally with normals (don’t focus on stigma)
oMay lead to a negative valuation by
oNetworks, urban milieu, residential communities
§Use softer language (PC)
§Represent the community in public/events
§Lobby for the concerns of the stigmatized
§Create publications which create an “ideology of membership”
oSuccess Stories: become REPRESENTATIVES of their “category” of stigma
·The Wise: those who are normal but whose special situation make them privy to and sympathetic to the situation of the stigmatized. (receive a COURTESY STIGMA)
oMust offer themselves to the stigmatized community
oMust wait to be accepted by the stigmatized community
§Someone who serves the community (physical therapists)
§Someone who is kin to (family) with the community
·Family inherit stigmatization
·Can make normals uncomfortable and may themselves experience a separate stigmatization
Moral Career: the personal history of stigmatization
(4 patterns)
1.Inborn stigma: become socialized into their disadvantaged position even while learning and incorporating the standards against which they fall short
2.Protective Capsule (family/community): How long this protective capsule can last will depend upon social standing, isolation, etc.---home schooling, private school, physical isolation, information control---problems can arise when the capsule can no longer provide protection
3.One Who becomes Stigmatized Late in Life:learns about the normal and the stigmatized long before he must recognize himself as deficient—need to REIDENTIFY. Special likelihood of developing disapproval of self.
4.Initially Socialized in Stigma and then Reintegrated: uneasy feeling about new acquaintances and status may give way to uneasy feeling about old ones. (sometimes applies to #3)
#3 & #4 may experience “affiliation cycles” where they vacillate between affiliation in the two disparate groups.
INFORMATION CONTROL AND PERSONAL IDENTITY
Information control between DISCREDITEDand NORMALS are focused on managing the tension generated in social interaction.
Interactions between DISCREDITED and NORMALS are focused on managing information about one's failing.
PASSING (as we will see) is the management of undisclosed discrediting information.
SOCIAL INFORMATION
SIGNS: convey social information about one's ABIDING CHARACTERISTICS as opposed to temporary ones.
expressed by the individual because they are embodied during social interaction
SYMBOLS: Routinely sought and received signs (manipulated in social interactions)
status symbol (points), Stigma symbol (slips)
draw attention to ones identity immediately
DISIDENTIFIERS: sign or symbol meant to throw doubt on a stigmatized social identity
speaks "good English"
wears a suit and tie
can have variable meaning within a culture
rainbow
tattoo
colors
WITH: company you keep acts as a social symbol
VISIBILITY
the degree to which a stigma is visible/perceivable, determines one's options for passing
OBTRUSIVENESS: how much the stigma interferes with social interaction
KNOWN-ABOUT-NESS: how much the stigma is common knowledge or the social group is aware of it (previous knowledge)
PERCEIVED FOCUS: the behavioral expectations , social disqualifications, which are perceived to be associated with a particular stigma
DECODING CAPACITY OF THE AUDIENCE: how the audience is able to read the symbols and signs determines its visibility.
PERSONAL IDENTITY (as opposed to social identity)
"Breaking Through" (Fred Davis) an attempt to move from "impersonal (stereotypic social id) to personal contact (relieves stigma). Successfully establishing a personal rather than a social identity=NORMALIZATION
SHELTERING: protection of a stigmatized person by individuals and/or institutions that know them personally.
discredited and discrediting individuals have very different problems managing personal identity.
discrediting persons may avoid intimates for fear of judgement (choosing others as sympathetic)
easily concealed stigmas often have a greater potential impact on intimates (impotence, addiction, abuse, homosexuality) because it challenges ones personal identity
sometimes intimates will help hide their stigma by COVERING for the passing individual
Personal Identity (uniqueness and individual characteristics) vs Social Identity (embodied signs and symbols. MANAGEMENT:
BIOGRAPHY(every one has a story that they can construct and manage)
memory
testimony of others
non-contradictory facts
PERSONAL PR
IDENTITY DOCUMENTS
Manipulation of Optional symbols (Jewish star, eg)
PASSING
Usually falls between complete secrecy on the one hand, and complete revelation on the other. WHY DO IT?
There are great REWARDS for being "normal", therefore those that have the opportunity to do so will often pass
BLACKMAIL: revelation by those who are aware of the persons personal identity
so, FEAR of being found out when passing. The more that one knows of your biography, the more treacherous it is to be around them
DOUBLE LIFE: the individual keeps two separate social and personal identities by creating two separate physical spheres of interaction (double biography may develop here).
3 SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTS
OUT OF BOUNDS PLACES-cant go lest they be found out
CIVIL PLACES-places where they can interact with normals
BACK PLACES -places where they can be themselves and not have to worry about passing or any other stigma management
High level of anxiety due to deeper and deeper lying. may experience alienation from both groups (normals and stigmatized)
children with a stigma pass with the help of parents efforts (unwitting passer-sheltering)
repercussions can be damaging
when do you let them know about the" real world"
TECHNIQUES OF INFORMATION CONTROL
name changing (some famous examples)
Alan Alda (Alphonzo de'Abruzzo) Jennifer Aniston (Jennifer Anastanssakis) George Burns (Nathan Birenbaum) Dyan Cannon (Samille Diane Friesen) Lee J Cobb (Leo Jacoby) Tony Curtis (Bernard Schwartz) Rodney Dangerfield (Jacob Cohen) Kirk Douglas (Issur Danielovitch) Melvyn Douglas (Melvyn Hesselberg) John Garfield (Julius Garfinkel) Paulette Goddard (Marion Levy) Joel Grey (Joe Katz) Lawrence Harvey (Larushka Mischa Skikne) Judy Holiday (Judith Tuvim) Danny Kaye (David Daniel Kaminsky) Jerry Lewis (Joseph Levitch) Peter Lorre (Lazio Lowenstein) -------------- Amahd Rashad (Bobby Moore) Muhammad Ali (Cassius Marcellus Clay) Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (Ferdinand Lewis Alcinder)
reject using a "stigma tool"
use of disidentifiers and concealment of stigma symbols
present signs of a horrible stigma as a LESS HORRIBLE STIGMA
confide only in a small group who help you & pass to everyone else (curtail intimacy & enlist mutual aid in passing)
Voluntarily disclose stigma
wear stigma symbol
make fleeting references to stigma
DISCLOSURE ETIQUETTE: prevents others from slipping up in social situations and is appreciated in social interaction by normals
LEARNING HOW TO PASS: one stage in the stigmatized persons development according to Goffman. later they become comfortable with their identity and feel no need to pass (empowerment)
COVERING
Managing the difference between obtrusiveness and visibility.making a great effort to minimize the obtrusiveness of a stigma. MORE COMMON THAN PASSING (which is both difficult and risky). Only option to some who are visible at all times.
reduce social tension
change name to English
assimilation techniques used by ethnic groups
give others dispensation from politeness rules
draw attention away from the stigma
hide unpleasant images or ideas
get a nose job
wear dark glasses
get breast reconstruction
cover a scar
wear a prosthesis
wear makeup
feign normalcy
learn to get on in the normal world
adapt your behavior to normals
AMBIVALENCE OF THE STIGMATIZED
oscillations of identification and association the individual exhibits regarding his FELLOW stigmatized
ranks his own by how obtrusive they are
the more allied with NORMALS the individual is, the more he will see himself in non-stigmatic terms (usually)
concern with group "purity" distaste with the exhibition of stereotypical traits of others of his kind
NEARING:coming close to an undesirable instance of his own kind while in the presence of normals...most profound
PRIMAL SCENE IN SOCIOLOGY
These are situations in which the lack of "normality of an interaction becomes PAINFULLY apparent. In Primal scenes the OBVIOUS character of a stigmatized person is bared for all to see and the nature of the stigma (what makes it less than human) is revealed. Primal scenes make us VERY UNCOMFORTABLE.
PROFESSIONAL PRESENTATIONS
codes of behavior for the stigmatized:
desirable patterns of revealing and concealing
forulas for dealing with tickleish situations
support he shopuld give to his own
typoe of fraternization with normals
attacks to his own kind he should IGNORE or TAKE TO HEART
the extent to which he should present himself "just like everyone else"
the extent to which he should expect/demand special treatment
the facts about his own to take pride in
the facts about his own he should "face up to"
warned against attempting to pass completely
warned against fully accepting the negative attitude of others
warned againstMINSTRALIZATION
stigmatized person acts out before normals, the full stereotypical extent of the bad qualities imputed to his kind (viewed as clownish)
warned against NORMIFICATION (deminstralization)
stigmatized person
to fail to adhere to the code is to be SELF-DELUDED & MISGUIDED. Adhering is considered AUTHENTICITY (someone who is well adapted and true to themselves)
---may through this advice become a critic of the sical scene (acute observer of human relations) "Situation Conscious"
---feelings of exposure and betrayal as these codes often touch on private and personal matters.
More Rules! IN-GROUP ALIGNMENTS (rules for behavior):
consolidates public image on outspoken politisized member
militancy in group behavior can lead to further separation and decreased acceptance
OUT-GROUP ALIGNMENTS (rules for behavior):
if he follows the requests of normals, he is seen as well-adjusted (psychological definition)
fulfil normal activities as best as you can
dont make a big deal about your stigma
dont feel bitter or resentful
help others in mixed social situations (relax normals by covering)
let normals present FEEL like wise ones
acceptance is conditional on following the expectations for adjustment
POLITICS OF IDENTITY (rules for behavior)
should act NORMAL, but not too normal (contradiction)
a subset of the group will REFUSE TO COVER (new discrimination-Yoshino)
distinction is made between BEING & DOING (assimilation oriented-Yoshino)
what happens when you are stigmatized but can't meet these identity norms?
support the norms but do not realize them
reject the norms & alienate yourself from the community
passing & covering
DEVIATIONS & DEVIANCE
In-Group Deviant- outlier in a group of stigmatized people whoise biography will explain their strangeness
Social deviant: members of a group of outlies who reject normal society and its morays. May feel that they are better than normals. Obtaining potential recruits from normal society and often sympathy.
collective denial of social order
fail to use opportunities to advance
show disrespect
bohemians
political radicals
MEDIA PORTRAYALS: How do they impact our views?
In some reworkings of Goffman, further categorizes stigma
variation by four criteria that can affect the perceived level
of deviance or depravity:
visibility
(i.e. discernible by others)
publicity
(i.e. already known by others-known-aboutness)
obtrusiveness
(i.e. affecting social interaction)
relevance
(i.e. situational)
These variations are not mutually exclusive and often
overlap due to differing levels of perceived depravity, an individual’s choice,
and external factors.
A famous example is the stigmatization of sufferers of
HIV/AIDS who are differentiated from normative society on all three
levels: illness, choice to engage in perceived “dangerous” sex (often
assumed homosexual sex) and the assumed connection with homosexuals, greatly
feared and stigmatized in their own right, especially during the moral
panic surrounding HIV/AIDS of the 1980s and ‘90s (Tomaszewski 2012).
Another example is the stigma surrounding depression or other ‘subtle’ forms of
mental illness which are so often brushed off as a stigma of character but due
to the biological origins of the illnesses, could also be assigned physical
stigma.
Overcoming stigma around mental illness could
have remarkable impactful:
fewer people who seek help instead of
hiding what they are going through.
people resist testing and diagnosis
people limit their lives
Due to this, there are add campaigns in
attempt to end stigma around mental illness.
Stigma around mental illness often stops sufferers from be
honest about what they’re going through
What is the impact of stigmatization on the spoiled identity that you have chosen?
Stigma Management: Summary
Normalizing – The act of maintaining/proving one’s normalcy, often involving the ‘it’s just a guilty pleasure’ mentality. i.e. “I really don’t play video games that often, only on the weekends.”
Neutralizing – The act of explaining why one’s specific situation is not deviant and why it should not be stigmatized. i.e. “Its okay Grandma, I only got a tattoo because I wanted to remember Grandpa.”
Passing – The act of performing normalcy, often involving the lying and reinforcing of stigma around the characteristic in question. i.e. “What are you talking about? Of course I don’t wear makeup, I’m a guy, that would be weird.”
Covering – The act of hiding the stigmatizing characteristic either verbally or physically. i.e. “Oh, those Barbies aren’t mine. My sister must have left them there.”
Insulating – The act of physically separating oneself and/or the characteristic in question from ‘normal’ society to avoid judgement.
Distancing – The act of physically separating oneself from other stigmatized individuals, often involving the ‘I’m not like them’ mentality
Embracement – The act of publicly accepting the stigmatizing characteristic, often with pride to counter the shame of stigma or a simple lack of other techniques if the characteristic happens to become common knowledge. i.e. “I don’t care what they say, I love My Little Pony. That show is awesome!”
How does the spoiled identity you have chosen Manage stigma?
Example: HIV/AIDS
People who suffer from HIV/AIDS often end up suffering in silence due to the stigma associated with the illness, as well as the stigma surrounding groups who are typically affected by HIV such as homosexuals, immigrants, African Americans and drug users. This stigma placed on those who contract this illness, cause the people to engage in different types of stigma management techniques.
DISTANCING
The first technique people with HIV use is distancing, in which they attempt to disassociate themselves with the more stigmatized aspects of the illness, such as affiliation with the groups commonly affected, and attempt to attribute their infection to a more socially accepted source. Such as saying that they are not like drug users who are careless about needles or gay men who are promiscuous and irresponsible with protection. In distancing themselves they do not challenge the stigma associated with the illness itself, but instead create a category of victims, perceived to be more innocent contractors, and place themselves within this category.
COVERING
HIV/AIDS is an illness that begins to show physical symptoms as it progresses. When people want to conceal the fact that they are infected with HIV but cannot hide their physical symptoms they use the management technique covering. Many people will do so by lying about the illness that they have, claiming that they have illnesses such as cancer, that have fewer negative stigmas associated with them, but have similar severities. Lying in this way enables them to avoid the stigma associated with HIV/AIDS. If instead, people believe that their symptoms are too far along to lie about they will sometimes use the isolating management technique. This technique is often very alienating as it causes people to hide the fact that they have HIV by completely hiding themselves, avoiding social interaction, and isolating themselves from the people in their lives.
EMBRACEMENT
There are some people who use a very different management technique in which they do not attempt to hide their infection or distance themselves from its stigmas, instead they openly disclose and discuss the fact that they have HIV. This management technique is embracement. Hiding the illness creates the perception that the illness is shameful and should be concealed. Openly talking about ones’ infection with the illness challenges this assumption. One person suffering from HIV stated that, “The more you talk about it, the less stigmatized you feel. And the more people you tell, the more people are on your side. The more love and understanding and comprehension you get from everyone, and the less ostracized you feel.”
Example: Homelessness
Homeless individuals are often stigmatized as lazy or unintelligent and are often blamed for the difficulties that they face. Society assumes people are homeless due to factors such as being irresponsible with their money or being unwilling to put the effort in to get a job or stop drinking, ignoring the fact that many people are homeless because of factors and circumstances out of their control. The stigma that is associated with being homeless prevents those people from escaping their situation, so they use management techniques to lessen or negate the effects of this stigma.
If people view the homeless as somehow deserving of their situation it is easier to turn a blind eye to their suffering
COVERING
One strategy homeless people use is covering, in which they try to conceal the more stigmatized aspects associated with homelessness such as their clothing or speech. While going out to a fancy restaurant with a friend who is not homeless or going to a job interview, a homeless person using this strategy would attempt to minimize the things people associate with homelessness and stress habits which fit the societal standard of normal. They may wear their nicest clothes, be more conscious about their choice of language, and present themselves with intentionally improved manners.
DISTANCING
Other times, homeless people will use the management technique of distancing. If they are able to distance themselves from more damaging aspects of homelessness then people might perceive them as separate from those aspects and thus they would be less affected by the stigma. This could be done by disassociating ones self with groups people perceive as reckless or lazy such as gang members or gamblers and attribute your homelessness to something more traumatic and out of their control such as a house-fire or death of a parent. This creates a group ‘other’ that perceived as more innocent and therefore is less stigmatized.
EMBRACEMENT
Using the management technique of embracing allows homeless children to feel more confidence and less worthlessness. Being more open and not ashamed creates an environment to discuss homelessness. This opens doors to being an advocate for education and change, which may lead to lesser stigma in the future.
PASSING
Often homeless children attempt to “pass” as their non-homeless peers to gain access to public domain and to better fit into society’s norms. This technique of passing is most commonly demonstrated as homeless children dressing like a non-homeless child (such as wearing the latest trends or non raggedy clothing). In the above mentioned study, homeless children were more likely to chose clothing in terms of style rather than functionality. “On numerous occasions, kids refused to take donated coats during the winter because they were ugly and out of style.” By giving the appearance of being a non-homeless child, they are less likely to be judged or stigmatized at first glance, providing them with less restricted access to things such as trust, sympathy, or respect from strangers
Example: Secular and Religious differences
Atheists and other secular groups are often associated with communism. To mainstream society, being “god-less” is stigmatized as having no moral compass and often labels the individual as a radical. It is interesting to note that society was fine with people who do not practice religion but still believed in god, however, society looks negatively on those who do not believe in god. The negative stigmas surrounding atheists, agnostics, and other secular religions are slowly becoming less prevalent in society, but due to the still strong presence of catholic religion in mainstream society, identifying as a follower of those religions can still restrict an individual.
NORMALIZATION
Normalization focuses on removing the aspects of a stigma that separate those stigmatized people from the rest of society. “A common way in which secular respondents redefined their secularism was to emphasize positive aspects of secularism.” sayings such as “being an atheist is a proactive lifestyle because it encourages you to solve your own problems” and “most atheists I know are some of the best people I’ve met” are ways in which non-God believing religions remove the negative stigmas of radicalness and highlight the religion in a way that makes it seem appealing, or normal. Secular followers redefine their situation by indicating that “secularism is a valid alternative to religion. By expressing how these religions help society and are not different from other religions more accepted from society.”
NEUTRALIZATION
Neutralization occurs when a deviant neutralizes various aspects and morals of themselves to allow them to perform the deviant, stigmatized act. Neutralization normally occurs after the act has been performed to help reduce tensions surrounding the stigma. Atheists often report themselves as being “neurologically wired” to be the way there are. Others frequently use the argument that even if there was a God, they would hate him/her because while he may create life and be responsible for the beauty of nature, he is also responsible for war, death, and pain. Secularists, Atheists, and Agnostics justify their absence of prayer or religious practice by the fact that god does bad things along with the good. They rationalize with themselves that not partaking in mainstream religion is okay because it has down sides too.
PASSING
Passing is a stigma management technique that could be common for Midwest seculars. Religion is a fairly personal aspect to most people and is not often dictated by appearance. This makes it easy to utilize passing because unless an individual is asked, most people will assume a person is religious, allowing seculars to escape the stigmas of being non-religious. “For example, an atheist may try to pass as an agnostic or claim to be a humanist to avoid the negative connotations of the label “atheist.” Or an atheist may choose to say they are agnostic because it gives the impression that they are open to religion or are seeking a religion, which mollifies the stigma of having no belief.”
